A textual Comparison Term Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 5000 words

A textual Comparison - Term Paper Example This paper will attempt to compare and discuss O’Neill’s Mourning Becomes Electra and Sophocles’ Electra in order to ascertain the extent of the influence of classic literature to modern drama. When a writer provoked comparison with the ancient Greek tragedians, as O’Neill does so, he cannot quite protest if his dispute is recognised and he is evaluated rigidly by their standards. Certainly, what would be offensive and an act of intentional and insulting denigration, would be a thoughtful analysis of Mourning Becomes Electra as rather ‘well done’ for an American, but apparently not, a work to be evaluated by European standards. I will not replicate that mockery to O’Neill. Because he boldly tries to write on the level of the three ancient Greek tragedians (Aeschylus, Sophocles, and Euripides), this paper will give him the privilege to evaluate him by the same standards applied to the ancient playwrights, particularly to Sophocles. The preliminary acts of Mourning Becomes Electra could have written only by a natural dramatist. Even though the play is lengthy, the acts are efficiently constructed, even in the final, scattered portion of the trilogy. The general of the Greek armies, and fortunate king and husband of the regal Clytemnestra, when he set forth on the expedition against Troy left behind him two smouldering fires of revenge. His father had been guilty of the blood of his own brother and nephews. One of the boys, Aegisthus had been spared and was now growing to manhood with but one purpose in life—to shed the blood of his more fortunate kinsman. But even more sinister was the pain he left in the heart of his wife, for before sailing, to insure the success of the enterprise, Agamemnon had been forced to slay his own daughter Iphigenia. During the long years of the war, the wife and the cousin can brood and plot, making common cause in behalf of justice. Justice—the call is as old as human nature. It’s a

Understanding Supply Chain Management in Your Business Strategy Essay

Understanding Supply Chain Management in Your Business Strategy - Essay Example Wal-Mart employs about 2.2 million people in the world and has very innovative and committed leaders to drive its growth. Wal-Mart uses various ways of promoting their products to reach as many audiences as possible. One of the strategies it uses is the Above The Line (ATL) in which the company uses the mass media to promote its brands and reach many consumers all over the world. Such media includes television, radios, the internet, and the print media (Lu, 2015).. The company can reach a wide audience by using the ATL and increase their sales. The other way the company promotes its sales is through Below The Line (BTL) advertising which is a one to one method such as using stickers, pamphlets, brochures, or handbills placed at the point of sale, and on the roads through placards and banners. Product demonstration and samples at busy places such as malls and marketplaces and residential areas also play a big part in advertising. The other BTL by the company are the use of road shows and distribution of literature on the product using vehicles. Walmart competition in the consumer retail industry can be analysed using the Porters Five forces to understand its strategies that make it remain relevant in the market (Lu, 2015).. Entry barriers for Walmart are high as it has outstanding locations, brand name, distribution systems, and financial capital to keep off its competitors. Walmart possesses an absolute cost advantage over its competitors making it remain relevant. To reduce rivalry among established companies such as the Target Company, Wal-Mart differentiates its products and uses smaller packaging to serve low-income earners. Individual buyers have little power over Wal-Mart as its pricing strategies and the quality of its products attract consumers to its retail shops. Wal-Mart has reduced the bargaining power of suppliers by offering a lot of business to manufacturers and wholesalers. Its large suppliers such as the

Biography of Audrey Hepburn Essay Example for Free

Biography of Audrey Hepburn Essay Although her film career came to an end in the late 1980’s, Audrey Hepburn is considered to be one of the most long-lasting on-screen icons of all time. During her 41 year acting career, Hepburn won several awards including an Academy Award for Best Actress in 1953, and was ranked third on the American Film Institutes list, â€Å"50 Greatest Screen Legends† (Jackson). In addition, Hepburn has been widely acknowledged as a timeless beauty and fashion icon. Several years after her death, her image continues to be used in advertising campaigns. Most recently, a clip of Hepburn dancing from the film â€Å"Funny Face† was used in a 2006 Gap commercial to advertise the company’s black pant (Msnbc). However, it is undeniably the actress’s later work with UNICEF, the United Nations Children’s Fund, that has had the greatest impact on society. Audrey Hepburn was born in Brussels, Belgium on May 4, 1929. Although she experienced great success later in her life, Hepburn faced much adversity as a child growing up in Europe during World War II. In 1939, four years after her father’s abandonment, Hepburn, her mother, and her two half-brothers moved to the Netherlands as the threat of a Nazi attack continued to increase (Pettinger). However, one year later, Germany gained control of the country and the living conditions of its people began to deteriorate rapidly. During the Dutch Famine of 1944, in which much of the country’s food and fuel was confiscated by the Germans, Hepburn, along with many other people, suffered from severe malnutrition and faced starvation. Hepburn and many others resorted to making flour out of tulip bulbs to bake cakes and biscuits† (Wikipedia). Adding to her suffering, Hepburn witnessed the brutality of the Nazi’s first-hand on several occasions. Most traumatic was the shooting of her uncle and cousin for their participation in the Resistance of the Nazi party. She also witnessed the murders of several strangers by the Nazi’s, as well as the collection of Jews for c oncentration camps. She later stated, â€Å"I have memories. More than once I was at the station seeing trainloads of Jews being transported, seeing all these faces over the top of the wagon† (Wikipedia). These memories remained with her for the rest of her life. Despite the hardships that Hepburn and her family faced, she was still able to attend school at the Arnhem Conservatory, and soon became a talented ballerina. She continued her ballet lessons after the war ended in 1945; however, with her family still struggling financially, Hepburn soon decided to pursue a career in acting. She explained, I needed the money; it paid ? 3 more than ballet jobs (Nichols). Her acting career began in 1948 with a small role in the European educational film â€Å"Dutch in Seven Lessons. † She continued to play minor roles in several other films and motion pictures, and in 1951, the actress moved to New York to star in the successful Broadway play â€Å"Gigi† (Biography. com). â€Å"Roman Holiday† was Hepburn’s first starring role outside of Broadway. The role made Hepburn an almost instant celebrity and landed her on the cover of TIME magazine in 1953. In addition, she received both a Golden Globe for Best Motion Picture Actress and an Academy Award for her role in the film (Wikipedia). Throughout her five years of service with UNICEF, Hepburn traveled to several countries in Africa, Asia, and Latin America. While in these countries, it was her responsibility to attract attention to the serious issues facing them. During her trip to Ethiopia, Hepburn stated, â€Å"Im glad Ive got a name, because Im using it for what its worth. Its like a bonus that my career has given me† (Sally Clara). Hepburn participated in numerous press conferences in the United States and other wealthy nations, reporting on her experiences in the third-world countries to create awareness about the dire situations facing each. In addition to acting as a spokesperson, Hepburn also worked in the field, delivering food, immunizations, medicine, and emotional support to the children in need. During her short career with UNICEF, Hepburn made over fifty field visits to countries including Sudan, Ecuador, Honduras, and Thailand. In 1991, President George Bush presented the actress with Presidential Medal of Freedom, the â€Å"highest honor any individual can receive in the United States,† in return for her work with UNICEF (Sally Clara). Shortly after receiving the award, Hepburn died of colon cancer at the age of sixty-three. However, her work with UNICEF lives on through the Audrey Hepburn Memorial Children’s Fund, the organization created by her sons, Sean Ferrer and Luca Dotti in 1994 to continue their mother’s humanitarian efforts (Sally Clara). As of 2006, â€Å"The Audrey Hepburn Memorial Fund at UNICEF has raised over $1 million dollars for educational programs in Eritrea, Ethiopia, Rwanda, Sudan and Somalia† (Audrey Hepburn Children’s Fund). It is undeniable that Audrey Hepburn made her mark in U. S. history through her work as an actress during the 1950’s and 1960’s. Despite her humble beginnings, Hepburn managed to become one of America’s most beloved actresses and fashion icons of the twentieth century. However, it was her humble beginnings that eventually led her to leave her acting career and devote her life to bringing aid to children in need. Although she will always be adored for her work on Broadway and in cinema, it is her humanitarian work with UNICEF that has left the most significant impact on the world.

Learning Theories Essay Example for Free

Learning Theories Essay This chapter takes a brief look at the two major categories of learning theories (behaviorism and constructivism), the major theorists within those categories, and the implications of those theories for the use of multimedia and communications and information technology for learning purposes. A separate section within the chapter provides a brief overview of learning based upon neuroscience and recent discoveries about the functioning of the brain. A series of links are provided to further resources on learning theory, neuroscience, and the brain. pic] Our Technological Revolution and the Implications for the Way We Learn We have all experienced a learning moment when we were so focussed or engulfed in the learning, that everything else did not matter. Candidly, the raison detre or motivation for our focus may have been that we had a boss or teacher breathing down our neck or an impending exam was to quantify our level of knowledge or intelligence or a particular moment necessitated that a skill be learned very quickly. Regardless of the motivating factors for this moment of focussed learning, the experience is what psychologists Mihaly Czikszentmihalyi and Ellen Langer label in their respective theories, as moments of optimum flow or mindfulness. According to psychologist Mihaly Czikszentmihalyi, optimum flow occurs when: Alientation gives way to involvement, enjoyment replaces boredom, helplessness turns into a feeling of control, and psychic energy works to reinforce the sense of self, instead of being lost in the service of external goals. (Czikszentmihalyi, 1990, p. 9) Replicating such moments of optimum flow is the job of educators regardless of the domain, whether it be school, the workplace in job training, or the military, etc. Moreover, certain learning theorists are advocating the greater use of technology, namely computers, in learning situations because they see enormous potential of computer technology to replicate these optimum moments of flow. Learning is a personal act. We each plac e our own personal stamp on how we learn, what we learn and when we learn. We in effect have our own learning style. Howard Gardners theory of multiple intelligences which acknowledges learning as an holistic experience is, at present, one of the most well known descriptors of human cognitive profiles. The act of learning is paradoxical in nature. It can at times appear to be a very simple act. So simple, that we do not question its presence in how we go about our daily activities, for it is natural to our existence as learning organisms. Yet, when we encounter difficulties in learning something, we no longer take the learning process for granted. It is only then that our metacognition or awareness of how we learn is heightened. Learning is taken for granted as a natural process. As simple a process it may seem, the root of understanding how we learn is not as straight forward. The existence of numerous definitions and theories of learning attest to the complexity of this process. A random sampling of any educational psychology text will illustrate the variance in views to what exactly is learning and how we do learn. In Educational Psychology: An Introduction, for example, the authors write, Learning implies a change in the individual as a result of some intervention. It may be viewed as an outcome or as a process. (Belkin and Gray, 1977, p. 211) While this definition reflects a behaviorist view of learning, for it equates learning as an outcome, it is a starting point for the authors to expand their description of learning into many other realms, namely the different theories of learning. They in effect, devote a whole chapter of their text just to describe the many ways of defining learning. While it may seem somewhat premature to evaluate the aforementioned definition of learning and to equate it with a specific theory, it is important to recognize that intervention in the learning process can imply many different things. The degree of intervention, by who or what and how, are the defining factors of a learning theory. These factors help distinguish the many different theories. As you will see these theories are not stagnant. They are evolving and changing as we discover new ways of viewing human cognition. The mechanistic model of the mind of the behavior era has given way to the logical-computational model favored by artificial intelligence and cognitive science theorists (McLellan, 1996, p. 6). Don Tapscott, in his book Growing Up Digital: The Rise of the Net Generation, argues that we are now in a digital era of learning. According to Tapscott, a transformation in learning is taking place from what he labels broadcast learning to interactive learning. No longer are todays generation of learners satisfied in being the passive recipients of the traditional teaching process, rather, they want to discover it for themselves by becoming interactive with the learning. The net generation children using GlobaLearn [a web site], are beginning to process information and learn differently than the boomers before them. New media tools offer great promise for a new model of learning one based on discovery and participation. (Tapscott, 1998, p. 127) Tapscotts thesis that the technological revolution is permeating every aspect of our lives forces us to examine the use of computer technology as learning devices. Such rapid social, economic and general lifestyle change, due in essence to the technological revolution, begs the question based on learning theory, why does the use of computers as a learning tool make sense? This chapter will answer this question by profiling the many learning theories. [pic] The Spectrum of Learning Theories As a review of the literature of learning theories will illustrate there are many labels being used to describe the many theories. Moreover, there are many theorists associated with each approach. A categorization of these labels and theorists will help in understanding these fundamental theories. The spectrum of learning theories consists of many approaches or ways of explaining how humans learn. A description of each of these theories will suffice in providing you with enough knowledge to critically examine the use of computer technology as a learning device. The resume of each theory will consist of: †¢ the associated names of the theory †¢ a description of the theory †¢ theorists associated with the theory †¢ hyperlinks on the World Wide Web Diagram #1: The two extremes Behaviorism   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚     Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚     Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚     Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Constructivism The extremes of this learning theory spectrum are represented by respectively, the Behaviorist and Constructivist theories of learning. As theories trying to explain the same thing, they are bipolar based on their respective views of how knowledge is acquired and the intervention of tools of learning (teachers or instructors). As a context to better understand all of the theories of learning presented in this chapter, examine these two extremes first and then place the remaining theories onto the spectrum. [pic] Behaviorism The Associated Names of this Theory: Behaviorism labelled as a teaching approach is often referred to as directed instruction. As you compare this theory with the Constructivist view of learning, this label will become self-evident. Also in contrast to Constructivism, it has been labelled an objectivist theory of learning. Theorists associated with Behaviorism: J. B Watson E. L Thorndike B. F Skinner A Description of Behaviorism: The concern or emphasis of Behaviorism is observable indicators that learning is taking place. Contrasting this view of learning is the emphasis of cognitive psychologists who equate learning with the mental processes of the mind. Behaviorists do not deny the existence of these mental processes. In fact, they acknowledge their existence as an unobservable indication of learning. The focus of Behaviorism is on the conditioning of observable human behavior. J. B Watson, the father of Behaviorism, defined learning as a sequence of stimulus and response actions in observable cause and effect relationships. The behaviorists example of classical conditioning demonstrates the process whereby a human learns to respond to a neutral stimulus in such a manner that would normally be associated with an unconditioned stimulus. The supporting example often cited with classical conditioning is the case of Pavlovs dog. The focus of Pavlovs experiment was the digestive process in animals. In conducting the experiment, Pavlov noticed that the dog would salivate (response), upon hearing the ringing of a bell. This occurred because the dog had learned to associate its unconditional stimuli (normally feeding), with the neutral stimuli of the bell ringing simultaneously with the feeding process. Watson, believed that the stimuli that humans receive may be generated internally (for example hunger), or externally (for example, a loud noise). B. F. Skinner expanded on the foundation of Behaviorism, established by Watson, and on the work of Edward Thorndike, by focussing on operant conditioning. According to Skinner, voluntary or automatic behavior is either strengthened or weakened by the immediate presence of a reward or a punishment. The learning principle behind operant conditioning is that new learning occurs as a result of positive reinforcement, and old patterns are abandoned as a result of negative reinforcement. (Belkin and Gray, 1977, p. 9) In his book entitled, The Technology of Teaching, Skinner wrote: The application of operant conditioning to education is simple and direct. Teaching is the arrangement of contingencies of reinforcement under which students learn. They learn without teaching in their natural environments, but teachers arrange special contingencies which expedite learning, hastening the appearance of behavior which would otherwise be acquired slowly or making sure of the appearance of behavior which otherwise never occur. (Skinner, 1968, p. 4) Skinner believed that more complex learning could be achieved by this process of contingencies and reinforcement through successive stages in the shaping process, the contingencies of reinforcement being changed progressively in the direction of the required behavior. (Skinner, 1968, p. 10) Applying the theoretical principles of Behaviorism to learning environments, it is easy to recognize that we have many behaviorist artifacts in our learning world. A dissection of the traditional teaching approaches used for years would reveal the powerful influence that Behaviorists have had on learning. The concept of directed instruction, whereby a teacher is providing the knowledge to the students either directly or through the set up of contingencies, is an excellent example of the Behaviorist model of learning. The use of exams to measure observable behavior of learning, the use of rewards and punishments in our school systems, and the breaking down of the instruction process into conditions of learning (as developed by Robert Gagne), are all further examples of the Behaviorist influence. With the advent of the computer in school, C. A. I. , or computer-assisted instruction has become a prominent tool for teaching, because from a Behaviorist perspective, it is an effective way of learning. CAI uses the drill and practice approach to learning new concepts or skills. The question acting as the stimulus, elicits a response from the user. Based on the response a reward may be provided. The contingencies of learning are translated into different levels of the program. Rewarding the user to a different level for correct responses follows exactly the approach of operant conditioning. Educators have espoused CAI as an effective teaching approach because it allows for self-paced instruction and it liberates them from the direct instruction of all their students so as to focus on those students with particular needs. Hyperlinks to Behaviorist Web Pages: http://www. coe. uh. edu/~srmehall/theory/theory. html http://tecfa. unige. ch/edu-comp/edu-s94/contrib/schneider/learn. fm. html#REF13085 http://www. sil. org/lingualinks/library/literacy/fre371/vao443/TKS2569/tks347/tks734/ http://mse. byu. edu/ipt301/jordan/learnterm_b. html [pic] Constructivism: The Associated Names of this Theory: Constructivsm is recognized as a unique learning theory in itself. It however, may be associated with cognitive psychology because as a theory of learning it focuses on a learners ability to mentally construct meaning of their own environment and to create their own learning. As a teaching practice it is associated with different degrees of non-directed learning. The term constructivsm is linked to Cognitive and Social Constructivsm. Theorists associated with Constuctivism: John Dewey Lev Vygotsky Jean Piaget Jerome Bruner Seymour Papert Mitchell Resnick A Description of Constructivism: The merits of Behaviorist learning theory and of their teaching practices are well documented. They have served well in teaching a growing North American population over the past six decades. Behavioral learning theory manifested itself in creating a systematic approach to teaching. Robert Gagne and Leslie Briggs, in their book, Principles of Instructional Design, combined Behaviorist principles of learning with a cognitive theory of learning named Information-Processing. The focus of the latter theory in this combination was of the internal processing that occurred during a learning moment. The design of instruction must be undertaken with suitable attention to the conditions under which learning occurs. With reference to the learner, learning conditions are both external and internal. These conditions are in turn dependent upon what is being learned. How can these basic ideas be used to design instruction ? How can they be applied to the design of single lessons, of courses, and of entire systems of instructions ? (Gagne and Briggs, 1974, p. 14) Gagne and Briggs principles of instructional design broke down the teaching process into a systematic process of nine steps. It is in effect, this type of systematic approach to teaching that acted as the catalyst for the creation of another view of the way humans learn. Behaviorist learning theory had served its purpose and its approach and goals were becoming outdated according to Constructivists like Seymour Papert. Constructivist learning theory sought to improve on what Behaviorist learning theory had already established by focussing on the motivation and ability for humans to construct learning for themselves. It viewed Behaviorism as being too teacher centered and directed. Constructivists regarded the educational system as a process of matching skill objectives with test items. It was void of meaningful learning. They also saw the teaching process focus too much on individual work rather than on group work. The final critique of Behaviorist learning theory from the Constructivist perspective helped define the core of Constructivism. To imply that knowledge is separate to the human mind and that it must be transferred to the learner in a teacher centered approach fundamentally was counter to the Constructivist theory of learning. Constructivists believe that all humans have the ability to construct knowledge in their own minds through a process of discovery and problem-solving. The extent to which this process can take place naturally, without structure and teaching is the defining factor amongst those who advocate this learning theory. Jean Piaget, a Swiss psychologist, observed human development as progressive stages of cognitive development. His four stages, which commence at infancy and progress into adulthood, characterize the cognitive abilities necessary at each stage to construct meaning of ones environment. Seymour Papert, psychologist and contemporary critique of Behaviorist teaching methods, writes in his book, The Childrens Machine: Thus, constructionism, my personal reconstruction of constructivism has as its main feature the fact that it looks more closely than other educational -isms at the idea of mental construction. It attaches special importance to the role of constructions in the world as a support for those in the head, thereby becoming less of a purely mentalist doctrine. (Papert, 1993, p. 42) As the inventor of LOGO, the programming tool for children, Papert too believed that children as learners have a natural curiosity to construct meaning of their world. The educational system as Papert saw it was too structured and it stifled this natural curiosity. The means by which children were being taught relegated them to a role of passive recipients of the teaching hence, they were not motivated to construct any learning for themselves. Learning according to Constructivists is a question of motivating an individual to attach new meaning to past cognitive experiences. According to Papert: It [constuctivsm] does not call in question the value of instruction as such. That would be silly: Even the statement (endorsed if not originated by Piaget) that every act of teaching deprives the child of an opportunity for discovery is not a categorical imperative against teaching, but a paradoxically expressed reminder to keep it in check. The constructionist attitude to teaching is not at all dismissive because it is minimalist the goal is to teach in such a way as to produce the most learning for the least teaching. Of course, this cannot be achieved simply by reducing the quantity of teaching while leaving everything unchanged. The principle other necessary change parallels an African proverb: If a man is hungry you can give him a fish, but it is better to give him a line and teach him to catch fish himself. (Papert, 1993, p. 139) Paperts desire to have children become motivated learners, critical thinkers, problem-solvers and metacognitionists is to be achieved through educational reform that provides the learner with the necessary tools to participate and to take ownership of the learning process. According to Papert, the computer is the appropriate tool to achieve such desired educational reform. These desired objectives of Papert and others who share the Constructivist view of learning are coming closer to reality as more people discover the power of computer technology. From Donald Tapscotts perspective, Paperts desired reality is happening now, as a paradigm shift to more interactive learning due to the exploitation of the digital media is taking place in our learning institutions. Tapscott cites eight shifts in learning today: †¢ From linear to hypermedia. †¢ From instruction to construction and discovery. †¢ From teacher-centered to learner-centered education. †¢ From absorbing material to learning how to navigate and how to learn. †¢ From school to lifelong learning. †¢ From one-size-fits-all to customized learning. †¢ From learning as torture as learning as fun. †¢ From the teacher as transmitter to the teacher as facilitator. Hyperlinks to Constructivist Web Pages: http://www. tcimet. net/mmclass/summer/CHPTales. tm http://www. coe. uh. edu/~srmehall/theory/construct. html http://www. gwu. edu/~tip/bruner. html http://www. mamamedia. com/areas/grownups/people/seymour. html http://www. mamamedia. com/areas/grownups/home_alt. html http://lynx. dac. neu. edu/home/httpd/t/tjohnson/papert%20history. htm [pic] Fitting the other Theories onto the Spectrum The two extremes of the spectrum have been outlined (refer to diagram #2). Inherent within each of these two extremes are related theories. Diagram #2: (Spectrum Summary) Behaviorism   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚     Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚     Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚     Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Constructivism   Directed Instruction   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Non-directed Instruction Objectivist   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚     Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Constructivist Teacher-centered   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Learner-centered Behavioral observations   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Cognitive operations Focus on the individual   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚     Ã‚   Group work is emphasized More focussed on one approach   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   More holistic in approach Fundamentally, Constructivism is a cognitive learning theory because of its focus on the mental processes that construct meaning. Other learning theories equated with cognitive psychology are: Information-Processing theory, Scaffolding theory (associated with the Russian philosopher Lev Vygotsky) and Brain-based learning theory (associated with neuroscientists such as Marian Diamond and Robert Sylwester and educator Susan Kovalik). Information-Processing theory regards human learning as being analogous to a computer and its ability to store memory. As humans we process information initially with our senses. This information is either processed into our short term memory or it is lost. If this information is used and practised it is only then put into long term memory. Lev Vygotsky thought that our cognitive development was directly related to our social development. The culture we live in influences our social and cognitive development according to Vygotsky. He further recognized the differences of how the world is seen by children and by adults. Vygotsky labelled this difference in cognitive ability as the zone of proximal development. The job of educators was to identify this zone and to find out where the child was situated in this zone and build upon their specific level through a scaffolding process. Building from what the learner knows is in essence, anchoring the learning on past experience. Such anchoring is fundamental to Constructivist theory of learning. Computer technology is viewed by Seymour Papert as an excellent means to anchoring learning to meaningful experiences. The complexity of understanding how humans learn is reflective of our complexity as biological, social and cognitive animals. Many theories exist, all focussing on different aspects of our make-up as humans. Each theory is an attempt to explain how we learn, act and behave: Sigmund Freud focussed on our sub-conscious, Skinner on our observable behavior, cognitive psychologists on our mental processes, humanistic psychology on our social and interpersonal development. Howard Gardner took a more holistic approach in describing our cognitive profiles. His classification of human intellectual ability into seven intelligences incorporates many aspects of psychology to define the cognitive behavior of humans. Before moving on to Multiple Intelligences , refer to the following hyperlinks for information on other learning theories. http://mse. byu. edu/ipt301/jordan/learning. html [pic] Theory of Multiple Intelligences: Human intelligence should not be equated solely with linguistic or logical-mathematical intelligence alone, according to Howard Gardner. As the author of a new way of looking at human intelligences, Gardner, a Harvard professor, identified a total of seven different intelligences that humans may possess. His list includes: †¢ Linguistic intelligence †¢ Logical-mathematical intelligence †¢ Spatial intelligence †¢ Musical intelligence †¢ Bodily-kinesthetic †¢ Interpersonal intelligence †¢ Intrapersonal intelligence Gardner is working on more intelligences that qualify as cognitive processes: Multiple intelligences theory, on the other hand, pluralizes the traditional concept(Gardner, 1993, p. 15) Gardners fascination with human intelligence and how the brain works was started with an investigation of people who had experienced brain damage of some sort. He recognized that not all abilities, whether cognitive or motor-sensory, were eliminated from the individuals repertoire despite having endured some form of brain damage. Gardner hypothesized that we possess more than one form of intelligence. The theory of multiple intelligences provides a more holistic view of the intelligence of humans. Gardner advocates that we may all attempt to develop each of these intelligences to our optimum level. However, we may be more adept in only certain of these intelligences. We may however, aspire through practice and development to improve in the remaining intelligences. The use of technology appeals to this view of intelligence in that Gardners theory acknowledges that cognition is not a linear process. The computer as a learning tool has enormous potential in developing the different forms of intelligences of Gardners theory. Hyperlinks to Multiple Intelligences Web Pages: http://www. athena. ivv. nasa. gov/curric/weather/adptcty/multint. html [pic] Learning Theories and the Brain What is Learning? Learning is the process by which we receive and process sensory data, encode such data as memories within the neural structures of our brain, and retrieve those memories for subsequent use. The variety of information stored within such memories is enormous, including such items as: how to control your sphincter muscle until a socially appropriate occasion, how to identify mommy in a crowd, how to ride a bicycle, what is the shortest path to grandmother’s house without going near the lair of the wolf, what is the tune for Beethoven’s Ode to Joy, and what a philosopher means when she says The cat is on the mat. All learning takes place within the brain, and as our understanding of the underlying structures and processes of the brain increases we can begin to apply that knowledge to improve our construction of learning environments. Our ability to describe and understand the basic processes by which our brain learns has bee n enhanced by recent technological developments and by the accumulation of long-term studies in human and animal populations. Of particular benefit has been the development of brain-imaging techniques that allow us to observe the operation of normal human brains during the performance of a variety of tasks. Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI) and similar technologies have allowed researchers to map neural activity during sensory data processing and monitor the transfer of information into long-term memory. Researchers have also made great strides in determining the basic mechanisms that underlie the transmission of information within the brain. Such research on brain structure, neural transmitters, and the process by which memories are stored and retrieved have allowed the development of neuro-physiological models of learning. Although neuroscience has provided us with an increasingly rich and accurate descriptive theory of learning within the brain, we still need prescriptive theories of how to maximize the efficiency and capacity of human learning. To some extent all learning theories are prescriptive and seek to minimize the time required to transfer information into memory and maximize the efficiency of retrieving that information. Our current knowledge of the brain, and our speculations regarding the evolutionary function of learning, should assist such prescriptive theories in designing learning environments that provide for maximum learning efficiency. In particular, prescriptive theories informed by our current knowledge of neuroscience should allow us to evaluate the role of multimedia in learning environments. We should also be able to maximize the impact of multimedia in such environments through application of learning theories and our knowledge of the human brain. Learning environments should not be construed simply as the traditional formal classroom within the context of institutionalized public education. Such environments occur within the workplace, the home, and other social institutions as communication and information technology continues to penetrate Western society. We should also be aware that the use of multimedia will have an impact upon the development of the human brain, particularly when such techniques are used with children and adolescents whose brains are still developing and maturing. [pic] The Brain The three-pound universe that is our brain consists of more than 100 billion neurons and the associated structures that organize, nourish, and protect their functioning. Each neuron may have between 5,000 and 50,000 connections to other neurons, forming a dense connective mat that allows the storage of enormous amounts of information. It is important to remember that structures within the brain continue to develop until late adolescence and that neurons will continue to grow connections to other neurons throughout adult life. [pic] Brain Structures The diagram above shows four basic structures in the brain that are important for bodily functions and for learning and memory. The brain stem is primarily concerned with basic survival functions and the regulation of body systems. The cerebellum is involved in the performance of automatic movement patterns (walking, running, touch-typing, and other physical skills that can become part of automatic procedural memory). The limbic system is responsible for the processing of short-term memory into long-term memory as well as the generation and regulation of emotions. The cerebral cortex is the area of the brain in which sensory data is received and analyzed, decisions are made, and behavioral responses are activated. Information is received from the major sensory organs of the body: eyes, ears, nose, tongue, and skin; and is held briefly in sensory memory. The further processing of that information appears to be dependent upon the state of emotional arousal of the brain and the utility of such information for potential survival. Long-term memories are generated through the growth and spread of neural connections between those modular structures that contain the memory (Sylwester, 1995, pp. 89-90). The more often such structures are activated and the stronger the connections become to associated structures, the more easily such memories are retrieved and used by the brain in decision making and conscious thought. To some extent the driving forces behind the way our brain processes sensory input and makes decisions are the survival imperatives that accompanied human physical and cultural evolution. Our brains reflect the importance that survival places upon evaluating potential threat situations, making a quick response, and focusing all body resources on support of those functions that may lead to continued survival. In high-threat situations the focus of the brain will be almost exclusively upon what is identified as the potential threat while the body shuts down relatively unimportant systems to concentrate on those involved in the fight-or-flight response. Low-threat situations allow the brain to sample and evaluate a broader spectrum of sensory input and to analyze such input for future use. Thus a large looming shadow in the cave mouth tends to generate fear, prompting the body to shut down digestion, pump more adrenaline, and prepare the cerebellum to handle the process of running while the cerebral cortex looks for places to hide or make a stand. Strong negative emotion tends to evoke the fight-or-flight physiological and mental responses that shut down high-level cognition. A premium should therefor be placed upon the reduction of those factors within a learning environment that give rise to negative emotions. At the same time, sensory input that does not receive attention is not available for processing through short-term into long-term memory. Clearly a balance must be struck between too much and too little stimulation in learning situations. Some stimulation and motivation is necessary for the learner to pay attention to the data that they are required to learn; on the other hand too much stimulation (particularly in a negative context) is liable to create anger or fear as an emotional response, either of which can serve to reduce the amount of learning carried out within the environment. It appears that the limbic system plays an important part in the process of storing information as long-term memories. Those activities that provide an emotionally supportive environment may well have a positive effect upon the processing of information into long-term storage and subsequent retrieval of those memories. Group activities, co-operative learning, role-playing, and simulations tend to provide emotional support and emotional context for learning. Retrieval of long-term memories is enhanced when a large number of connections have been established between the neural modules that store such memories. To some extent our growing knowledge about the organization of the brain tends to support those theories of learning that can generally be labeled as constructivist. That is, situated knowledge that is connected to a large number of other memories is more apt to be recalled than is unconnected knowledge that has been learned by rote. Because the process of creating connections between ideas and memories is essentially carried out through a process of rehearsal and review, learners should be encouraged to review knowledge that is being learned and attempt to build connections to that knowledge that is already easily retrieved from long-term memory. Such cognitive tools as narration, story-telling, constructing metaphors, and making comparisons are strategies that help to build and maintain connections. The construction of knowledge is essentially the growing of connections between the neural modules that contain individual memories. [pic] Implications for Learning Theory If the apparent symmetry between contemporary brain-based learning theories and constructivism is accurate, then basic guiding principles of constructivism should be used in designing learning environments. These principles include: 1. Learning is a search for meaning. Therefore, learning must start with the issues around which students are actively trying to construct meaning. 2. Meaning requires understanding wholes as well as parts. Parts must be understood in the context of wholes. Therefore the learning process focuses on primary concepts, not isolated facts. 3. In order to teach well, we must understand the mental models that students use to understand the world, and the assumptions that support those models. 4. The purpose of learning is to construct ones own meaning, not to have the right answers by repeating someone elses meaning. Learning is inherently inter-disciplinary, and the only valuable assessment of learning is assessment that is part of the learning process and that provides students with information on the quality of their learning. (On Purpose Associates, 1998b) Such learning environments should also be designed around the ideas that come forward from brain-based learning. That is, they should employ the three instructional techniques associated with brain-based learning: orchestrated immersion, where learning environments are created that fully immerse students in a learning experience; relaxed alertness, where an effort is made to eliminate fear while maintaining a highly challenging environment; and active processing, where the learner consolidates and internalizes information by actively processing it (On Purpose Associates, 1998a). Learning environments constructed with these principles in mind will tend to be organized around thematic units featuring knowledge in depth and the exploration of projects that have real meaning for the participating learners. [pic] Implications for Multimedia How should we then use multimedia presentations of information to effectively learn in the context of current brain-based learning theory? The communications and information technology that constitutes contemporary multimedia platforms has some significant advantages in creating a learning environment, but there are some pitfalls that must be accounted for as part of the learning process. Multimedia, at its best, allows us to bring the real world to the learner through the use of sound and video. Such connection to the real world should serve as a factor in motivating students, and as a factor in providing them with additional connections to other knowledge structures. At the same time, multimedia allows students to experience information through multiple modes of presentation. Such multi-modal learning should help to build connections within the learner’s brain if only because multiple modes of reception will engage different areas of the learner’s brain. Contemporary multimedia platforms allow a greater degree of learner control and more freedom for the learner to undertake self-directed exploration of the material. Such self-directed learning is likely to be more meaningful and more connected to existing knowledge structures within the learner’s brain. Therefore, we should see advantages for learning programs that include multimedia presentations. Learners should also gain from the possibility of self-paced instruction based upon contemporary multimedia learning technology. Whenever possible, immediate feedback should be built into a multimedia program to assist students in forming correct connections prior to reinforcing connections between new and old information incorporated within existing knowledge structures. Designers of multimedia instructional packages should take comfort in the strengths of multimedia, but they should also be aware of potential problems in using multimedia with learners. Although current multimedia technology allows excellent presentation in both video and audio modes, and provides some tactile feedback through the use of keyboards, there is little to offer students who need tactile experience ? multimedia is essentially a bimodal presentation strategy unless additional work is done to prepare material for students. Even the best multimedia programs cannot provide the total stimulation that natural environments provide? we have yet to incorporate smell or taste into such presentations, and tactile sensations are still limited. More importantly, there is a clear danger that multimedia programs may be used to substitute for interaction with other learners. We should not be seduced by technical virtuosity or cutting-edge visual and aural effects, there is still a need for human interaction and emotional support. Above all else, we should beware of the tendency to substitute passive learning for active learning. Multimedia provides significant advantages in presenting information to learners, particularly if sufficient resources have been invested to create presentations that make full use of current technology. Presentation of information, no matter how technically sophisticated, is not enough; learners must interact with content to construct their own meanings and integrate new knowledge into the dense web of neural connections that is mind and memory. [pic]

Study of people and change

Study of people and change Change, change, change were all for change. We want to see him change, her change, them change. We want to see the organisation change. We want to see everyone change. We want to see everyone else change. Yes, were all for change as long as we dont have to change, but its a fact of life; we are all changing every day. Our environment is changing, our culture is changing, and the way we work is changing. The outside dynamics, technologies, strategies and plans are continuously changing. We are left with three options: We can fight it and delay it, but well change eventually. We can ignore it and hope it will go away but it wont, and well be overcome by it. We can embrace it, look forward to it, and well find our trip through life much more interesting, controllable, and enjoyable. (Buchanna, 1999) Process of Change Source: According to the given case study of Mybank there is also an element of change which the senior management tried to implement because of the external environment factors and the change which they tried to implement is quality management programme with the focus on cost reduction means they just formed a team of their employee and ask them to remove the inefficiencies that occurred during the process of change. As we move further we will discuss various drivers and restrainers of the Mybank, typology of the change, role of change agent, change management models and various outcomes from the learning from the case of Mybank and suitable recommendation for the better change. Drivers and Restrainers The forces helps organisation to move ahead with aim of implementing the change in successful manner but there are certain forces which pushes back the organisation objective of implementing the change. These forces are known as drivers and restrainers (Johnson, 2005). When any organisation plans for change they will need a drivers which facilitate their process of change but during this process the organisation can face obstacles also which are restrainers and during the implementation of change in Mybank case there were several drivers and restrainers which comes on the way of implementing the change. These drivers were the senior management who started the change by trying to present the quality improvement programme with consideration of better quality service to its customers and this was done by formation of teams of its employees which will remove the inefficiencies. Moreover, they consulted the consultants also to ease the process of change because they have more experience. But all these changes were considered by not ignoring the fact of cost Mybank was very specific and focused about the cost reduction. So when the implementation was on its way Mybank suffered with restrainers also that were the difference between the employees because everyone had different point of view regarding to change. Ego clashes between the departmental managers and regional lending managers, rejection of recommendations by senior managers, work over load for employees after the change, and the two separate lending loans section which resulted in ambiguity of data of clients. These all were the restrainers. Below Section will discuss more about the force field analysis Force Field analysis A force field analysis is a problem solving tool used to identify the reasons (forces) that support or oppose two positions to a question and the strength of each force. Kurt Lewin (1947) was the originator of the concept. Force field analysis could be used by to answer question, What factors affect the acceptance or resistance to a particular change? the assumption of a force field analysis is that it is easier to reduce the factors that are resistant than to increase the strength of the driving (supporting) forces. Below is the view of force field analysis. Force Field Analysis Source: (Stacey, 1993) Typology of change Tuning: It is very minute change that made by the change agents for the betterment of the organisation. It mainly focus on the customer satisfaction and this change is anticipatory change and according to the Mybank case the small change of quality for the better customer satisfaction has been implemented. Adapting: This change occurs with respect to the external activity like competitors new form of service and customer unpredictable reaction about the product and this change is reactive. With consideration of the fact of external environment Mybank hired the outside consultant to have competitive edge and ease the process of the change. Reorientation: This is one of the major organisational change that come on the way of process. In Mybank case the major change occurred when they got to know that they have to integrate the two lending loan section. This change is also anticipatory change. Recreating: This change gives response to the major changes in the form of dramatic shift. This is also reactive change. (Stacey, 1993) Change Management Models Anticipating Change It is the process which is having the very well defined and crystal clear model for the forces and the change in an organisation. There are two ways of doing the change i.e. planned change and unplanned change. As name suggest the planned change is the proper planning for the making the implementation of change in successful manner and this change and it is very important because the organisation do a lot of research with proper planning(Nilikant and Ramnarayan, 2006). On the other side unplanned change is the change when some mishappening occurred in the team like different member have different point of view in respect to change and it is very difficult to control the unplanned change because it comes suddenly during the process of change. Appreciating change makes the organisation aware that what is the requirement of change, what the results of the chosen change are and what are the best possible option available that help organisation with the aim of cost balancing. It comprises of 2 views i.e. Mental Models and Content Change. When we look at the case study of Mybank there were need of the change of quality and the implementation is done by making the inner teams which further remove the inefficiencies occurred during the implementation of change. (Nilikant and Ramnarayan, 2006) Content of Change Some ethics and principle means a lot to the organisation and they stick to that only. With global environment changing day by day and lot of organisation make changes according to this active and competitive environment. With respect to these changes an organisation can make a start from quality, marketing, technology and marketing(Nilikant and Ramnarayan, 2006). Technology changes frequently and it is not about only the technical side but it is more into collection knowledge, data and activities which further help organisation to achieve the desired outputs. To sustain and maintain the brand in this competitive environment is the daunting task for any organisation. There are two thing that occurred in Mybank case i.e. they focussed on the Multiskilling of the staff because they want to meet the expectations of the customers because they knew that they are only who drives any organisation and if they able to meet the expectation of the customer it means they are on the right path an d if not then they have to reconsider the change(Nilikant and Ramnarayan, 2006). Now comes the element of cost which is again the difficult task for an organisation because cost balancing is very difficult to maintain and in Mybank main focused was on the cost reduction with parallel implementation of quality programme. Now the final content of change is Marketing which can be done by giving good service to the customers and exploring various distribution channels. Mental Models This model is well defined by the Senge and he believes that organisation is generally not aware of the mental models and their effects on the individuals behaviour of an organisation. Mental Model are having two form one form consists of simple straight strategy which is known as the strategic planning which consists of SWOT analysis i.e. strengths, weaknesses, opportunities and threats. Other form or mental model create a lot of impact on the organisation failure and success. Mental model helps organisation to get the best output . (Nilikant and Ramnarayan, 2006) Mobilising Support When Organisation decides for the change and with the help of staff only they will able to implement the change. For this, the senior level management has to convince the staff and the other people which are linked to the organisation because with the full participation, involvement, dedication, commitment of the staff they change will get successful. Mobilising support is not an easy process because to control the staff and to convince them for the change requires lot willingness and patience. According to the Mybank case the senior management tried to hire consultant which further tried to convince staff to focus on the strategies that has been advised by consultants. At the end they want the employee full dedication for the change. (Nilikant and Ramnarayan, 2006) Executing Change Execution phase is very critical for the organisation and most of the organisation fails while implementing the change because of improper execution change. The organisation is having different kind of resources like finance, staff which plays a very important part in implementation of the change and requirement of these resources needed when quick change occurs in environment like competitor developed new product and services and it is believed that organisation always lack these resources when sudden change occurs and an organisation needs proper strategy to overcome this problem of resources. According to the case study Mybank implemented both the top down and bottom approaches with the help of consultants to get the desired aim of achieving the quality. (Nilikant and Ramnarayan, 2006) Building Change Capability To built the change capability is again a daunting task for any organisation and it is said that organisation always lack this capability. Organisation always ready to invest and build the capability to move forward which helps them to fight with the change but only few of them able to overcome. If they able to achieve the building capacity change then they can quickly able to achieve their targets and aims. In a nut shell capability change is very important part that organisation has to consider. According to the case Mybank tried to multiskill their employees and trained them because by investing on employees they can eradicate the difficulties that come their way. (Nilikant and Ramnarayan, 2006) Change Agent Cummings and Worley (2005) define a change agent as a person who attempts to alter some aspect of an organisation or an environment. Change agent may come from inside an organisation, in which case they are called internal consultants, or they may come from outside an organisation, in which case they are called external consultants (Stacey, 1993) Kotters view of change There are right mistakes organisation make while attempting to implement change. The eight mistakes include allowing complacency, failing to create a powerful guiding coalition, underestimating the power of vision, under communicating the vision, permitting obstacles to block the new vision, failing to create short-term wins, declaring victory too soon, and neglecting to anchor change firmly in the corporate culture. Each of these mistakes will be discussed in more detail below. Kotter (1996) proposes eight steps to leading organisational change and a procedure to overcome the aforementioned mistakes. Step one is to establish a sense of urgency by examining the market and competitors and identifying potential problems and major opportunities. Step two suggests leaders create a guiding coalition by assembling a team of people with sufficient power to lead the change to fruition while continuing to work as a team. Step three is to develop a vision and strategy to direct the change effort while developing solid strategies for completion. Step four is to communicate the vision to all employees and subordinate leaders. Step five involves empowering broad-based action by getting rid of obstacles, changing systems or structures as necessary, encouraging risk taking, and generating new ideas. Steps six to generate short-term wins and recognise the people who make the wins reality. Step seven is to consolidate gains and produce more change by hiring, promoting, and f urther developing change agents in the organisation. Finally, step eight in the change process advocates anchoring new approaches in the newly defined culture, thereby more value for the customer and employees alike. Kotter change model places significant emphasis upon the senior leaders in organisational changes efforts. Kotters Eight Stages Model Source: (Stacey, 1993) People and Change William Bridges transition model is concerned with how change affects individuals. It examines the psychological transitions that people go through when they are exposed to change and pattern that these transition follow. Because organisations change when people in them change, it is important to understand the pattern of psychological changes within individuals undergoing an organisational change. According to the bridges, these are the phases people go through as part of a significant change. The phases are (1) letting go and ending phase, in which people need time to grapple with losing something that has become familiar and safe;(2) neutral zone, during which people need time to comprehend what the new order will be like once the change is implemented and how they can fit into it and be productive; and (3) new beginning, where people begin to behave in the new ways that are required by the change (Stacey, 1993). Bridges claims that one of the biggest challenges of leading change occurs because the leader knows about the change long before others in the organisation. Therefore, he or she spent time in the first two phases, at least, before the change is announced to most employees. Forgetting that they themselves took time to go through the phases, leaders see employees who are just beginning the letting phase as rigid or even hostile to the change. Another main point here in Bridges Model is that at any time people who are higher in management have had more time to learn about the deal of the change-so they are farther along on the psychological transitions path. Because it is hard for them to remember how it felt to be in previous stage, they see people in the earlier stages as hostile to the change when they are actually just in the earlier stages of the processing it and its effect on themselves. Bridges Model of Transition Source: (Johnson, 2005) Learning Single Loop and Double Loop learning When something goes wrong, many people look for another strategy that will address and work within the governing variables. In other words, given or chosen goals, values, plans, and rules are operationalised rather than questioned. This is single loop learning. An alternative response is to question the governing variables themselves and to subject them to critical scrutiny. This is described as double loop learning. Such learning may then lead to an alteration in the governing variables and thus a shift in the way in which strategies and consequences are framed. This is how Argyris and Schon (1978) describe the process in the context of organisational learning. Single loop learning is like a thermostat that learns when it is too hot or too cold and turns the heat on or off. The thermostat can perform this task because it can receive room temperature information and take corrective action. Double loop learning occurs when errors are detected and corrected in ways that involve the modification of an organisations underlying norms, principles, policies, and objectives. (Nilikant and Ramnarayan, 2006) Single and Double Loop Learning Source: (Johnson, 2005) Recommendations for Mybank Four Core managerial competencies Decision-Making: This includes intuition and vision, the ability together and utilise information, understanding the practical and political consequences of decisions, the ability to overcome resistance, the skill to understand and synthesise conflicting views and to be able to empathise with different groups. Coalition-building: This comprises the skills necessary to gain the support and resources necessary to implement decisions. These include checking the feasibility of ideas, gaining supporters, bargaining with other stakeholders and presenting new ideas and concepts in a way that wins support. Achieving Action: This includes handling opposition, motivating people, providing support and building self esteem. (Stacey, 1993) Maintaining momentum and effort: This involves team building, generating ownership, sharing information and problems, providing feedback, trusting people and energising staff. An effective change Team It is necessary for the management to identify a team of people who will be responsible for promoting the changes required through commitment, communication and the provision of resources. Communicate the need for change Organisation and staff have a natural resistance to change as it challenges the organisations culture and often means additional work. It is therefore essential that the need to change is communicated clearly and convincingly in order to break down resistance. Employee commitment and involvement It is essential to ensure that the new way of working becomes integrated into organisations culture. The main way of gaining commitment to change is by involving staff in the development of potential changes and then in their subsequent introduction. Induction of change at the appropriate level Very few changes affect the entire organisation and when considering what needs to be different, it is important that managers identify exactly what and who needs to change. This is to ensure that proposed change will bring about the desired outcome. Sufficient Resources The introduction of change needs to be supported by the appropriate resources, such as money, staff training and staff time. Although money is important, allowing adequate staff time to develop and implement the change is even more so. Rewards and Recognition If you change the process and want to change individual behaviour patterns, you need to change the way you reward and recognise your staff. If you reward the people in the old way, theyll behave in the same old way. Considering Options The 5Cs of decision-making is a useful reminder of the process ahead of implementation: Consider -clarify the nature of the project, time and other constraints -identify the objectives Consult -gather the maximum amount of information available -call a meeting of those involved or their representatives. -decide at which point the consultation will stop Crunch review all the options and take decision -write down implementation plan. Communicate provide briefings on what will happen, why, and who the decision affects -make sure that everyone understands when decision is implemented

EUROPEAN DISEASES Essay -- essays research papers fc

The greatest adversary to the natives in the Americas was not the swords or guns of the invaders. It was the devastation brought by deadly diseases infecting an unsuspecting population that had no immunity to such diseases. The Europeans were said to be thoroughly diseased by the time Columbus set sail on his first voyage (Cowley, 1991). Through the domestication of such animals as pigs, horses, sheep, and cattle, the Europeans exposed themselves to a vast array of pathogens which continued to be spread through wars, explorations, and city-building. Thus any European who crossed the Atlantic was immune to such diseases as measles and smallpox because of battling them as a child. The original inhabitants traveled to the New World in groups of a couple hundred each. Because microbes such as the ones that cause measles and smallpox need populations of several million to survive, the original populations were unaffected by the deadly diseases. However, by the time Columbus arrived, the major Indian groups of Aztecs, Incas, and Mayas had built their populations up enough to sustain mass epidemics. Evidence shows that these populations suffered from such diseases as syphilis, tuberculosis, a few intestinal parasites, and some types of flu, but not the diseases that had been infecting the Old World for centuries. Thus when the Europeans arrived bringing diseases such as smallpox, measles, whooping cough, etc. the natives were immunologically defenseless (Cowley, 1991). It is believed that 40 million to 50 million people inhabited the New World before the arrival of Columbus and the Europeans, and that most of them died within a few decades. For example, Mexico's population fell from about 30 million in 1519 to 3 million in 1588. The other South and Central American countries as well as the Caribbean islands suffered the same devastation (Cowley, 1991). Mass epidemics were virtually unknown in the New World prior to the invasion of the Europeans. Aside from their lack of immunity to the pathogens, another factor in the rapid spread of the diseases could have been the weariness of the Indian populations. Due to their recent conquest and oppression by the Spaniards, the Indians were probably too tired to fight the infections. One thing that must be noted is that contrary to popular belief, infectious agents such as viruses, bacteria, parasites, etc. are not desig... ...o be like syphilis in that it was haunting isolated populations before becoming global. And just as syphilis was carried globally by ships; jet planes and world-wide social changes have brought AIDS out of isolation. Like smallpox and other infectious diseases in the 16th century and AIDS in the 20th century, what new disease will hit and destroy unsuspecting populations? BIBLIOGRAPHY Cowley, Geoffrey. "The Great Disease Migration." Newsweek (Special Issue, Fall/Winter 1991) pp. 54-56 Crosby, Alfred W. Jr. The Columbian Exchange: Biological and Cultural Consequences of 1492, Westport: Greenwood Press, 1972 Assignment: Write a short review of this paper for class on Friday. In addition, overwhelming historical evidence suggests that the greatest rates of morbidity and death from infection are associated with the introduction of new diseases from one region of the world to another by processes associated with civilized transport of goods at speeds and over distances outside the range of movements common to hunting and gathering groups. (excerpt from book of same title: pp. 131-141) Cohen, M. Health and the Rise of Civilization. New Haven: Yale University Press, 1989.

The Shock of the novel The Lottery by Shirley Jackson Essay -- The Lot

The Shock of the novel The Lottery by Shirley Jackson The first time I read â€Å"The Lottery† by Shirley Jackson, I thought it would be about someone in a desperate situation who wins a large amount of money. However, after reading the story I was shocked and disgusted like millions of other readers because of what the â€Å"lottery† was all about. After my shock wore off I thought about why the author had chosen to be so cynical. It occurred to me that she needed to shock people into changing for the better. She believed that the biggest problem in her society were the people who would live their lives without thinking about changing themselves for the better. She stresses the importance of questioning the validity of everything as opposed to conforming blindly to the majority. She portrays her message best through the characters that actually voice their opinion against the lottery and the characters who respond to them. While those opposed are the voice of reason, they are dismissed by the majority in different ways throughout the story. Firstly we see Mr. Adams questions Old Man Warner about the validity of the lottery when he says, â€Å"over in the north village they’re talking of giving up the lottery.† Old Man Warner, who represents the extreme right part of the majority, retorts with disgust and calls them a â€Å"pack of crazy fools.† The next person to speak up is Mrs. Adams, who is defending her husband to Old Man Warner. She informs the old man that there are place...